Bacterial Contamination of Door Handles/Knobs in Gombe State University, Nigeria

Abstract

Public contacted surfaces such as door knobs/handles frequently touched with hands could serves as vehicles for diseases transmission. This study was aimed at isolating, identifying, and evaluating the presence/absence of bacterial contaminant present on the knobs/handles of some selected departments of Gombe State University, Nigeria. During this investigation, door knobs/handles from the selected departments’ namely Biological sciences, Biochemistry and Microbiology department were selected for sample collections. A total number of one-hundred and thirty-five (135) samples were analyzed using the swab-rinse method. Samples collected were cultured and incubated at 37 0 C for 24 hours. Isolation and identification of bacteria was done using standard microbiological procedures. A total of one hundred and fifteen (115) colonies were isolated in this study based on cultural, morphological and biochemical characteristics. Frequency distribution of the isolates showed that Staphylococcus aureus were 26(22.0%), Staphylococcus epidermidis 14(12.6%), Escherichia coli 21(18%), Klebsiella spp. 15(13%), Proteus mirabilis 15(13%) and Salmonelle spp. 13(11%), and Pseudomonas aeruginosa 11(9.6%). The level of contamination varies depending on the traffic exposure and the environment. This means that it is necessary to practice good personal hygiene through hand washing and use of hand sanitizer as well as daily washing.

Keywords

Door handles/knobs; Bacterial contamination; Environmental hygiene; Surface

References

1. Nwankwo EO, Afuruobi H E. Isolation and identification of bacterial contaminants from door handles in a tertiar y institution in Umuahia, Abia state, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Microbiology 2015;29:3139-49.
2. AL-Harmoosh A, Ali J. Eidan, Hazim A. Al-Hadrawy, Qasim A. Mohammed and ©2019 The Authors. Published by G. J. Publications under the CC BY license. 209 Ameer Q. Hamed . Potential Bacterial Contaminants in the Handles of Car Doors. Journal of Pure and Applied Microbiology 2018;10.22207.
3. Al-Harbi M, Anderson A, Elmi A . Evaluation of Microbial Contamination in Frequently Used Fomites in Kuwait. Biodiversity Int J 2017;1(3):00013.
4. Onwubiko NE, Chinyeaka A H. Isolation And Identification Of Bacteria l Contaminants From Door Handles In A Tertiary Institution In Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Microbiology 2015;29:3139-47.
5. Nworie A, Ayeni J, Eze U, Azi S. Bacterial contamination of door handles/knobs in selected public conveniences i n Abuja metropolis, Nigeria: a public health threa t. Cont J Med Res 2012;6(1):7-11.
6. Adewoyin AG, Majolagbe ON, Ogunmoyewa T, Abejide MA . Antibiotic Resistance Profile of Microbial Isolates of Toilet-Bowl of some Students Hostels in Ogbomoso, Nigeria. Euro pean Jo urnal of Applied Sciences 2013;5(3):76-8.
7. Otter J, French G. Bacterial contamination in touch surfaces in the public transport system and in public areas of a hospital in London. Letters in Applied Microbio logy 2009;49:803-5.
8. Boone SA, Gerba C P. Th e Prevalence of human parainfluenza virus I on indoor office formite. Food an d Environmental Virology 2010;2(1):41-6.
9. Ducel G, Fabry J, Nicolle L, Girard R , Perruad M., Priiss A., Sawey T E., Thuriaux M., and Valnhems P. Prevention of Hospital Acquired Infection: A practical guide, 2nd Edition. WHO Department of Communicable Disease, S urveillance and Response: 2002;1-9.
10. Jawetz, Melnick, and Adelberg’s, Medical Microbiology 27th ed. McGraw -Hill Education USA, 2016.
11. Brooks, G. F., Carrol, K. C, Butel, J. S. , Morse, S. A., Jawetz, Melnick, Adelberg’s. Medical microbiology 24th edition. New York: McGraw Hill, 2007. 2198.
12. Tunc K, Olgun U. Microbiology of public telephones. J Inf 2006;53(2):140-3.
13. Narmeen S, Jaladet M. Isolation and identification of Staphylococ cus aureus using classical and molecular methods. The 2nd Kurdistan Conference on Biological Sciences 2009;12(1):10-6.
14. Harrison WA, Griffith CJ, Ayers T, Michaels B. Bacterial transfer and cross - contamination Potential associated wit h paper-towel dispens ing. Am J Infect Control 2003;31(7):387-91.
15. Cezar-Vaz M, Rocha L, Bonow C, Silva M, Cezar-Vaz J, et al. Risk Perception and Occupational Accidents: A Study of gas station workers in Southern Brazil. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2012;9(7): 2362-77.
16. Kawo AH, Dabai YU, Manga SB, Garba GJ. Prevalence and public health implications of the bacterial load of environmental surfaces of so me Secondary Schools in Sokoto, North-western Nigeria. Int Res J Micr 2012;3(5):186-90.
17. Reynolds K, Watt P, Boone S, Gerb a C. Occurrence of b acteria and biochemical markers on public surfaces. Int J Environ Health Res (2005);15(3): 225-234.
18. Jason O, Chika MA, Felix A. Assessment of microbial air contamination of post processed gari on sale in markets. Afr J Food Sci 2011;5(8):503-12.
19. Wada-kura A, Maxwell R, Sadiq HY, Tijjani M, Abdullahi I. Microbiological quality of some ready -to-eat foods and fomites in some cafeterias in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Biol E nviron Sc J Trop 2009;6(1):6-9.
20. De Jong A, Verhoeff -Bakkenes L, Nauta M, Jonge R. Cross -contamination in the kitchen: effect of hygiene measures. J A pp Microbio 2008;105(2):615-24.
21. Kassem II. Chinks in the armor: the role of the nonclinical environment in the transmission of Staphylococcus bacteria. Am J Infect Control 2011;39:539-41.
22. Payne DE, Martin NR, Parzych KR, Rickard AH, Underwood A, Boles BR. Tannic acid inhibits Staphylococcus aureus surface colonization in an IsaA -dependent manner. Infect Immun. 2013;81:496-504.
23. Pynnonen M, Stephenson RE, Schwartz K, Hernandez M, Boles BR. Hemoglobin promotes Staphylococcus aureus nasal colonization. PLoS Pathog 2011; 7:e1002104.
24. Nworie A, Ayeni JA, Eze UA, Azi SO. Bacterial contamination of door handles/knobs in selected public ©2019 The Authors. Published by G. J. Publications under the CC BY license. 210 conveniences in Abuja metropolis, Nigeria: a public health threat. Continen tal Journal of Medical Research 2012;6(1):7 - 11.
25. Wojgani H, Kehsa C, Cloutman -Green E, Gray C, Gant V, Klein N. Hospital Door Handle Design and Their Contamination with Bacteria: A Real Life Observational Study. Are We Pul ling against Close d Doors?. PLoS ONE, 2012;7(10):e40171.
26. Lynn M, Vivian O A, Wasa A A. Prevalence of bacterial organism on toilet door handles. Journal of Pharmacy a nd Biological Sciences 2013;8:85-91.
27. Opere BO, Ojo JO, Omonighehin E, Bamidele M. Antibioti c Susceptibility and Plasmid Profile Analysis of Pathogenic Bacteria Isolated from Environmental Surfaces in Public Toilets. Transnational Journal of Science and Technology 2013;3(2):22-30.
28. Reynolds KA, Hurst C J. Manual of Environmental Microbiology 2nd An nual Public Health Association page 9, 2005.
29. Kembel SW, Jones E, Kline J, Northcutt D, Stenson J, Womack AM, Bohannan BJ, Brown GZ, Green JL. Architectural design influences the diversity and structure of the built environment mic robiome. ISME J. 2012;6:1469-79.
30. Samy SA, Hamdy M E. Pathogenic Bacteria Associated with different public environmental sites. Journal of Medic al Microbiology 2012;2:133-7.
31. Reynolds KA, Watt PM, Boone SA, Gerba CP. Occurrence of Bacteria and Bacteria Markers on Public Surfaces. In ternational Journal of Environmental Health Research 2005;15(3):225-34.
32. Rusin P , Max well S, Gerba C. Comparative surface -to-hand and fingertip-to mouth transfer efficiency of gram-positive bacteria, gram - negative bacteria, and phage. Journal Applied Microbiology 2002;93:585-92.
33. Opere BO, Ojo JO, Omonighehin E, Bamidele M. Antibiotic Susceptibility and Plasmid Profile Analysis of Pathogenic Bacteria Isolated from Environmental Surfaces in Public Toilets. Transnational Journal of Scienc e and Technology 2013;3(2):22-30.
34. Nworie A, Ayeni JA, Eze UA, Azi S O. Bacterial contam ination of door handles/knobs in selected public conveniences in Abuja metropolis, Nigeria: a public health threat. Continental Journal of Medic al Research 2012;6(1):7 - 11.
35. Dodrill L, Schmidt WP, Cobb E, Donachie P, Curt is V , De -Barra M. The Effect of Hand washing with Water or Soap on Bacterial Contamination of Hands, International Journal Environmental Public Health Resource 2011;8(1):97-104.
36. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI). Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing; Twenty-second Informational supplement 2012;32(3):M100-S22.
37. Boone SA, Gerba CP. The Prevalence of human parainfluenza virus I on indoor office formite. Food and Environmental Virology 2010;4 (1): 41-6.
38. Bright KR, Boone SA, Gerba CP.: Occurrence of bacteria and viruses on Elementary classroom surfaces and the potential role of Elementary Classroom hygiene in the spread of infectious diseases. The Journal o f School Nursing 2010;26(2)33-41.
39. Bloomfield S. F. Survival of Salmonella in bathroom and Toilets in homes. Journal of Applied Microbiology 2000;89(1)137-44.
40. Beaugerie L and Petit JC. Microbial -gut interactions in health and disease. Antibiotic assoc iated diarrhoea. Best Practice and Research Clinical Gastroenterology 2004;18:337-52.
41. Goldhammer KA, Dooley DP, Ayala EW, Hill BL.: Prospective study of bacterial and viral Contamination of exercise equipment. Clinical J ournal of Sports Medicine 2006;16(1)34-8.
42. Kennedy DI, Enriquez CE, Gerba CP. : Enteric bacterial contamination of public restrooms. Cleaning In dustry Research Institute, 2005.
43. Monica Cheesbrough. District Laboratory Practice in Tropical Countries Part 2 Cambridge University Press, Low Price Edition (2002).
44. Prescott LM, Harvey JP, Klein DA . Microbiology, 2nd edition. W.M.C. Brown, England. 1993.
45. Reynolds KA. Hygiene of environmental surfaces. International Journal of ©2019 The Authors. Published by G. J. Publications under the CC BY license. 211 Environmental Health Research 2005;15 (2)225-34.
46. Prescott L.M., Harley J.P., Klen A. Donald. Microbiology, fourth Ed ition, McGraw Hill Publishing Press, 1999.
47. Rusin, P., Enriquez, C.E., Johnson, D. and Gerba, C.P. Environmentally transmitted pathogens. In: Environmental Micorbiology, eds. Maier, R.M., Pepper, I.L & Gerba, C.P, p. 448. New York: Academic Press, 2000.
48. Rusin, P., Orosz -Coughlin, P. and Gerba, C. Reduction of faecal coliform, coliform and heterotrophic plate count bacteria in the household kitch en and bathroom by disinfection with hypochlorite cleaners. Journal of Appli ed Microbiology 2002; 85:819-28.
49. Scott, E. and Bloomfield, S.F. The survival and transfer of microbial contamination via cloth, hands and utensils. J ournal of Applied Bacteriology 1990;68(3):271-8.
50. Scott E, Bloomfield SF, Barlow CG.: An investigation of microbial contamination in the home. Journal of Hygiene 1982;89(1) 279-93.